Report Writing

What is a report?
* A report is the formal writing up of a practical experiment, project or research investigation.
* A report has clearly defined sections presented in a standard format, which are used to tell the reader what you did, why and how you did it and what you found.
* Reports are written in a way which presumes that the reader knows nothing about your experiment or research.
* Reports are written in sufficient detail so that someone reading it would be able to replicate your experiment exactly.
*Reports differ from essays because they require an objective writing style which conveys information clearly and concisely.

Things to remember
# Are you sure you are writing a report? If its an essay then refer essay writing
# Make sure you know what you are doing! Do you understand the instructions you have been given?

# Find out from your tutor/course handbook if there is a preferred structure for writing reports in your subject area. You can then use the following guidelines TO SUPPLEMENT your departmental instructions rather than to replace them!
Structuring your Report
How many sections?
Most reports include the following sections:

1. Title
2. Abstract
3. Introduction
4. Method
5. Results
6. Discussion
7. References
8. Appendices

What goes in each section?

1. Title
This should be short and precise. It should tell the reader of the nature of your research – what were you studying?
E.g. The effects of stress on employers during long term work with computers
Omit any unnecessary detail e.g. ‘A study of….’ is not necessary.
Review some journal articles for appropriate examples from your subject area.

2. Abstract
The Abstract is a self-contained summary of the whole of your report. It should therefore be written last and is usually limited to one paragraph (approximately 150 words). It should contain:
- an outline of what you investigated (as stated in your title)
- why you chose to look at that particular area with brief reference to prior research done in the field
- your experimental hypothesis (prediction of what the results will show)
- a brief summary of your method
- your main findings and how these relate to your hypothesis
- a conclusion which may include a suggestion for further research.

3. Introduction
The Introduction ‘sets the scene’ for your report; it does this in two ways:
- by introducing the reader in more detail to the subject area you are looking at
- through presenting your objectives and hypotheses.
§ Initially you should explain the background to the problem with reference to previous work conducted in the area (i.e. a literature review). Ensure you only include studies that have direct relevance to your research.
§ Briefly discuss the findings of other researchers and how these connect with your study.
§ Finally, state your aims or hypothesis.

4. Method
The Method section should describe every step of how you carried out your research in sufficient detail so that the reader could exactly replicate your procedure if they wanted to. Information on your experimental design, sampling methods, participants (if there were any), equipment and the overall procedure employed should be clearly specified.

This information is usually presented under the following sub-headings:

> (if there were any) - say how many participants or items were included. Why and how were they selected? What were their defining characteristics?
> Design – Say what your experimental method was (e.g. laboratory or field experiment, questionnaire survey etc) and why you chose this method. What was your design i.e. how many different conditions did the experiment have (e.g. for Psychology students was it an independent or matched groups design?)? Also say what kind of data you gathered and how you collected it.
> Apparatus/Materials – Give a full description, do not use a list. In some subjects, particularly Science disciplines, this section is only required if you used special equipment.
> Procedure – A step by step description of what you did from start to finish.

5. Results
Your Results section should clearly convey the findings of your experiment. These are what you will base your commentary on in the Discussion section, so the reader needs to be certain of what you found.
• Present data in a summarised form (e.g. means and standard deviations).
• Raw data (e.g. individual recordings taken during the experiment) should be included in the Appendices.

Do not over-complicate the presentation and description of your results. Be clear and concise.
• Describe what the results were, don’t offer interpretations of them.
• Present them in a logical order.
• Those that link most directly to your hypothesis should be given first.

Presenting Data in Tables and Graphs
• Do not present the same data in two or more ways i.e. use either a table or a graph, or just text.
• Remember that a graph should be understandable independently of any text, but you may accompany each with a description if necessary.
• Use clear and concise titles for each figure. Say which variables the graph or table compares.
• Describe what the graph or table shows, then check that this really is what it shows! If it isn’t, you need to amend your figure, or your description.

Statistical Analysis
If you conducted a statistical analysis of your results:
- Say which test you used (e.g. chi-square, t-test) and briefly explain why you chose that particular statistical test.
- Show how your results were analysed, laying out your calculations clearly (ensure you include the level of probability or significance p or P, and the number of observations made n).
- Clearly state the results of the analysis saying whether the result was statistically significant or not both as numbers and in words.

6. Discussion
The Discussion section is probably the most important part of your report. It relates the findings of your study to the research that you talked about in your Introduction, thereby placing your work in the wider context. The Discussion helps the reader to understand the relevance of your research to previous and further work in the field. This is your chance to discuss, analyse and interpret your results in relation to all the information you have collected.

The Discussion will probably be the longest section of your report and should contain the following:
§ a summary of the main results of your study

§ an interpretation of these results in relation to your aims, predictions or hypothesis, e.g. is your hypothesis supported or rejected?, and in relation to the findings of other research in the area, specifically those studies that you included in your Introduction.

§ consideration of the broader implications of your findings. What do they suggest for future research in the area? If your results contradict previous findings what does this suggest about your work or the work of others? What should be studied next?

§ a discussion of any limitations or problems with your research method or experimental design and practical suggestions of how these might be avoided if the study was conducted again.

§ some carefully considered ideas for further research in the area that would help clarify or take forward your own findings.

§ a conclusion which briefly summarises the main issues arising from your report.

7. References
Here you must give details of work by all other authors which you have referred to in your report.
Again, check your subject handbook or journal articles for variations and give report accordingly for the field for which you are presenting this report.

8. Appendices
The Appendices contain material that is relevant to your report but that would disrupt its flow if it was contained within the main body. For example: raw data and calculations; interview questions; a glossary of terms, or other information that the reader may find useful to refer to. All appendices should be clearly labelled and referred to where appropriate in the main text (e.g. ‘See Appendix A for an example questionnaire’).
Writing style and language
Below are some tips you should bear in mind when you come to write up your report:
~ Write in the third person (passive voice) e.g. ‘A series of experiments were conducted’ rather than in the first person ‘I conducted a series of experiments’.

~ Avoid using personal opinions, descriptions or unnecessary detail e.g.
‘The data were painstakingly collected…’
‘The colour changed to a beautiful blue…’
These sentences contain detail that is subjective to the writer.
Which words would you take out to ensure the sentences are objective?
~ Also refrain from using non-quantifiable descriptions such as:
‘The vehicle reached a very high speed’ ‘It was the storm of a lifetime’

~ Be clear and concise and stick to short, simple sentences. Don’t be afraid of getting straight to the point. For example the following two sentences convey the same meaning:
‘Studies conducted previously in the field have revealed…’
‘Previous research shows…’

~ Avoid using an over-familiar, informal style e.g.:
‘At the end of the day…’ ‘When it comes to the crunch…’ ‘In a nutshell…’

~ Check your spelling, punctuation and grammar! Make use of the spelling and grammar checkers on your PC but remember that some errors will not be identified e.g. scientific names. Proof-reading your work can often gain you better results.